Geoffrey D. Miller, «Canonicity and Gender Roles: Tobit and Judith as Test Cases», Vol. 97 (2016) 199-221
Clues from rabbinic literature suggest that several factors were at play in establishing the early Jewish canon, including the dating, theology, and language of disputed texts. Another vital yet overlooked criterion is adherence to patriarchy, and a careful analysis of the Books of Judith and Tobit illustrates how these texts failed to meet rabbinic standards for gender roles. Most notably, the countercultural figures of Judith and Anna would have scandalized the rabbis by their encroachment on traditionally male spheres of activity, their freedom of movement inside and outside the home, and their ability to chastise male characters without repercussions.
214 GeoFFreY d. MILLer
guarantee a male guardian for Judith, who, as a widow, would have
been considered vulnerable and helpless in a male-dominated world.
Yet Judith remains fiercely independent to the end of her life, having no
need for a “male protector” 41. Since she first emerged from her home
in chap. 8, Judith proves herself to be “a new kind of woman”. She dons
the traditionally feminine roles of grieving widow and alluring seduc-
tress but also assumes the more masculine persona of civic leader,
warrior, and theologian. Her androgyny “transcends the male/female
dichotomy” and “ruptures the framework” of patriarchal structures 42.
IV. The Case of Tobit
The Book of Tobit promotes a more subtle countercultural agenda,
and a casual reader might mistake it for a patriarchal text. The deci-
sions of the principal male characters drive the plot, while their wives
and daughters are relegated to supporting roles. When the men issue a
command, the women usually obey, and Sarah’s behavior in particular
seems to exemplify subservience. She does whatever her father or hus-
band tells her to do, and her taciturn demeanor leads Amy-Jill Levine
to conclude: “Passive, dependent and silent, Sarah emerges as the
perfect wife” 43. Sarah is also denied any meaningful contact with the
angel raphael, even though he has been sent to ward off the demon
afflicting her. She is not privy to the angelophany that her husband and
father-in-law receive in chap. 12, for it appears that “in Tobit’s world
the realm of the supernatural is off-limits to women” 44.
The depiction of these characters and their general conformity to
gender norms would have pleased the rabbis, but several elements in
the book would have offended their androcentric sensibilities. despite
his staunch observance of the Torah, Tobit is an imperfect exemplar
for an ancient Jewish audience. on the one hand, he fulfills the pre-
41
BeLLIS, Helpmates, Harlots, and Heroes, 221.
42
P. MoNTLeY, “Judith in the Fine Arts: The Appeal of the Archetypal
Androgyne”, Anima 4 (1978) 37-42, here 40; M. HeLLMANN, Judit — eine Frau
im Spannungsfeld von Autonomie und göttlicher Führung. Studie über eine Frau-
engestalt des Alten Testaments (europäische Hochschulschriften XXIII 444;
Frankfurt am Main 1992) 71.
43
A.-J. LeVINe, “Tobit: Teaching Jews How to Live in the diaspora”, Bible
Review 8 (1992) 42-51, here 51.
44
B. BoW – G.W.e. NICKeLSBurG, “Patriarchy with a Twist. Men and Women
in Tobit”, “Women like this”. New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-
roman World (ed. A.-J. LeVINe) (SBLeJL 1; Atlanta, GA 1991) 127-144, here 134.