Gentile Incorporation into Israel in Ezra – Nehemiah? (*) Ezra – Nehemiah (EN) is well known for its separatist policy con- cerning gentiles. This stance is in strong contrast with the assimila- tionist approach found in other texts generally dated to the post-exilic period (e.g., Esther, Trito-Isaiah, Ruth, and Chronicles). Two excep- tions in EN are the possible participation of foreigners in the Passover ceremony (Ezra 6,19-21) and the community pledge to follow the Torah (Neh 10,29[28]). This paper will examine whether these cases indeed exhibit an anomalous inclusiveness, and if so, how it can be understood within the wider ethno-theological thrust of EN. It will be argued that the key to understanding lies in the way EN draws on im- portant themes found in antecedent Passover celebrations, the most significant of which is that it is only by partaking of the Passover that a person can be incorporated into the ‘true’ Israel. 1. Themes Drawn from Antecedent Passover Observances in the HB The observance of the Passover is recorded a number of times in the HB. Those which precede that in EN will be examined to derive common themes. Critical orthodoxy views these texts as being authoritative by the time of the composition of Ezra 1–6 (1), and thus (*) My thanks to Mark Leuchter, Shani Berrin Tzoref, and Ronald Clements for commenting on earlier versions of this article. (1) The current consensus is that Ezra 1-6 was written and/or edited after the rest of EN was written. See, inter alios, L.C. ALLEN – T.S. LANIAK, Ezra, Ne- hemiah, Esther (Peabody, MA 2003) 10; M.A. THRONTVEIT, Ezra-Nehemiah (In- terpretation; Louisville, KY 1992) 9-10. Following H.G.M. WILLIAMSON, “The Composition of Ezra i-vi”, JTS 34 (1983) 1-30, many scholars hold the view that this redactor is separate from the Chronicler, yet may still derive from the same circle that had redacted the books of Chronicles. Hence, thematic similarities can be expected to be found between Chronicles and Ezra 1-6. G.N. KNOPPERS, I Chronicles 1-9 (AB 12; Garden City, NY 2004) 96, n. 108, however, restricts the reworking to Ezra 1-3 on the following grounds: (1) The dedication of the Sec- ond Temple lacks clear parallels with Solomon’s Temple dedication (2 Chr 5–7), instead drawing primarily on legal materials; (2) The appointment of priests in their courses and Levites in their divisions (Ezra 6,18) is similar to 1 Chr 23–26, but the authorization formula is ‘as it is written in the book of Moses’, instead of referring to David; and (3) Zerubbabel is not mentioned at either the dedication (Ezra 6,13-18), or the Passover (6,19-22). While S. JAPHET, I and II Chronicles